Nearly all tissues, organs, and serosal cavities harbor a population of resident phagocytes. Most contain only a diffuse scattering of individual phagocytic cells that remain inconspicuous under normal conditions and are very similar to one another in appearance and function. In some tissues, however, phagocytes are especially abundant or have distinctive morphologic features and are known by specific names. Examples include the Kupffer cells that line sinusoids of the liver (and account for nearly 10% of total liver mass), osteoclasts in bone, or microglial cells of the brain (Table bellow). (more…)

The final stage of the disease process (although it may not be the final stage of the infection) is the actual production of disease. Many microorganisms live in or on the body without causing disease. These organisms are called commensal organisms and may be beneficial to the host: the production of lactic and lactobacilli proprionic acidophilus in the vagina inhibits the growth of many other bacteria and many commensal organisms compete with pathogens for ‘living space’ in the gut. Microbial pathogens differ in that they cause dis- ease by one or more mechanisms like picture bellow. These include the following: (more…)

There are several pathogen types that can cause disease include many groups of single-celled microorganisms and larger multicellular parasites. Viruses, bacteria, some yeasts, and protozoan parasites are examples of single- celled pathogens. Fungi and helminths (parasitic worms) are the major multi-cellular pathogens. These pathogens come from very different parts of the biological kingdom and vary considerably in many aspects. Pathogens differ enormously in their size. They also have very different lifestyles and cause disease in a variety of ways like bellow:

Poliovirus (Viruses)

Size: 20–400nm
Habitat: Intracellular: pharynx, intestine, nervous system
Mode of multiplication: Intracellular synthesis of viral components
Multiplication rate (doubling time): <1 hour

Poxvirus (Viruses)

Size: 20–400nm
Habitat: Intracellular: upper respiratory tract, lymph nodes, skin
Mode of multiplication: Intracellular synthesis of viral components
Multiplication rate (doubling time): <1 hour

Streptococcus pyogenes (Bacteria)

Size: 1–5µm
Habitat: Extracellular: pharynx
Mode of multiplication: Cell fission
Multiplication rate (doubling time): 3 hours

Mycobacterium leprae (Bacteria)

Size: 1–5µm
Habitat: Intracellular: macrophages, endothelial cells, Schwann cells
Mode of multiplication: Cell fission
Multiplication rate (doubling time): 2 weeks

Candida albicans (Fungi)

Size: 2–20µm
Habitat: Extracellular: mucosal surfaces
Mode of multiplication: Asexual budding
Multiplication rate (doubling time): Hours

Histoplasma capsulatum (Fungi)

Size: 2–20µm
Habitat: Intracellular: macrophages
Mode of multiplication: Asexual budding
Multiplication rate (doubling time): Hours

Trypanosomes (Protozoan parasites)

Size: 1–50mm
Habitat: Extracellular: bloodstream
Mode of multiplication: Binary fission
Multiplication rate (doubling time): 6.5 hours

Plasmodium (Protozoan parasites)

Size: 1–50mm
Habitat: Intracellular: red blood cells, hepatocytes
Mode of multiplication: Asexually in hepatocytes (cell fission)
Multiplication rate (doubling time): 8 hours

Ascaris lumbricoides (Metazoan parasites worms)

Size: 3mm to 7m
Habitat: Intestine
Mode of multiplication: Lays eggs
Multiplication rate (doubling time): 200000 eggs/day

Taenia solium tapeworm (Metazoan parasites worms)

Size: 3mm to 7m
Habitat: Gut
Mode of multiplication: Releases body segments containing eggs
Multiplication rate (doubling time): 800000 eggs/day

Size of pathogens

One feature of the range of pathogenic organisms listed above is the enormous variation in size. Viruses are the smallest infectious organisms, being 20–400 nm in size. At the other end of the scale some parasitic worms, such as the tapeworm, can be up to 7 m (20 ft) in length. This represents a difference in scale of a factor of 10e9 . To put that into some sort of perspective, if a virus were the size of a tennis ball, a fully developed tape- worm would reach from London to Los Angeles. It does not stretch the imagination too far to appreciate that the problems posed to the immune system by these two organisms would require very different solutions.

Stages of disease production by pathogens

Size is not the only way in which infectious organisms vary. They also vary enormously with respect to how they enter and live within the body and actually cause disease. Infection and disease production by pathogenic organisms can be divided into four stages:

1. Invasion.
2. Multiplication.
3. Spread.
4. Production of disease (pathogenesis).

Although infection usually involves all of these steps, there are many exceptions in terms of both the steps involved and their order. Some pathogens do not spread significantly or even technically gain entry to the body. Organisms may replicate locally before spreading or may spread through the body before beginning significant replication. Pathogens show considerable variation at each of these stages of infection, as will be described below.

Acute inflammatory response constitute the first line of defense against infection pathogenesis and how immune system works as well as the initial stage in restoring injured tissue to normalcy. Acute inflammation is recognized by redness, swelling, heat and pain in the affected area. These symptoms stem from a multitude of events taking place within the inflamed site. The humoral arm of the immune response, including circulating antibodies and the complement system, is activated. (more…)